Literature 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Literature 4 - Essay Example ading as well as for their recreation on the one hand, and for the character building and moral uplift of the innocent minds on the other, the writers take it as their moral obligation and professional duty to create such theme which portrays dutiful, honest and chaste as the follower of good, while liars, dishonest and trouble-creating characters as the representatives of evil. The writers also cite the fate of the transgressors and disobedient to the ways of the Creator, by which they look after keeping the children far away from the wrong-doing and evil. The same can be witnessed by going through the novel under analysis. Renowned fantasy writer Nancy Veglahn in her work has posed the question ‘who knows what evil lurks in the hearts of men? Women know – and likewise men know what evil lurks in the hearts of women’ (2003, p.114). By her proposition, she simply views that both male and female are can assess and comprehend with the negative and evil thoughts growing in the hearts of the members of their opposite gender; it is therefore, they portray each other as monsters and evils in their works because of the very reality that they are actually fearful of the hidden emotions prevailing in the breast of each other. Hence, the writers of both the sexes are psychologically aware of the flaws and faults of the individuals belonging to opposite gender; consequently, they project, promote and highlight these negative traits and characteristics in such an astounding way that it creates the same image in the innocent minds of children while their reading the fantasy, so that they could im agine the evils in the same lines on which they have studied them. Here arises the question whether there exists or not any need for the specification of gender identity in the literature meant for children. The theorists are of the opinion that since children have to take various responsibilities on the foundation of their gender in future, so there must be established the

Literary narrative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Literary narrative - Essay Example My teacher was less pleased though; she said that I must try harder to trace the letters as they appeared. After some time, I was able to trace all these letters of the alphabet—I was even able to memorize two or three. The time of the day that was my most favorite was just after lunchtime, when it was time for all of us kids to sit on the mat and listen to our teacher sing the ABC song. I quite liked this song—I was even able to hum the tune in my head after not too long. To help us sing along, our teacher would point to each letter on the whiteboard as we spoke each letter. This was really good because I got to know each letter of the alphabet in order. It was, however, a struggle whenever the teacher covered up the alphabet chart and made us sing the ABC song off by heart. If the teacher displayed a card with only a single letter on it, I could rarely guess which letter it was. It helped whenever another kid whispered the correct answer in my ear, yet I was not able to remember many of the letters by myself. After I had finished with kindergarten, I entered the first grade of a local elementary school. It was here that my reading and writing skills really started to improve. The teacher of my first grade class was really kind to me and helped me whenever I was stuck with writing a particular letter. After a few short months, I was able to distinguish between every single letter of the alphabet. My writing was still a little messy, although it was improving with practice. One of the key things that aided my development was the use of alphabet posters in my bedroom. My parents decided that I could learn the alphabet better by having all the letters of the alphabet plastered on my walls. While I was trying to get to sleep, I was able to see the outline of each letter of the alphabet because of the light that was shining into my room. In my sleep, I was able

Project Statistics Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Statistics Project Example The main procedure utilized in this study was regression analysis. It was utilized to explain the total variation of the dependent variable, the price of housing. The dependent variable was accompanied by 5 variables, which were tested against the dependent variable to determine how much of the total variation is explained. The analyses also discussed the comparison of the different regression models, and determine which model is the most effective. In regards to the regression analysis results, it is clearly evident that model 4 and 5 are the strongest model and model 1 being the weakest. Model 2 and 3 does not apply because of the reasons given. The first regression analysis step was to input all the collected data from the surveys into a spreadsheet. This process allows efficient running of regression models. After all the data was entered, there was formulation of the initial regression model. The analysis was done as in the next section. In summary, basing on the multiple regression above it is observed that the cost of construction, inflation rates, interest rates and real property gains tax influence negatively the price of housing. On the other hand population influences positively the price of housing. The analysis of this model can be further analyzed to ascertain the strength of the influence as seen in the next section. This first regression analysis shows a relatively weak model. The coefficient of Determination(R squared) shows that only 4% of the total variation is explained by the cost of construction factor. The standard error is 22.39, determined by the low R squared. In regards to the hypothesis testing, by considering an alpha of 0.05, the results indicate that this age variable is to be rejected. The independent variable of cost of construction demonstrates that the higher the cost of construction is, the less the price of housing and this is in line with several studies done. Thus the performance is less by -0.46633.

Database Management of Northampton Business School Essay

Database Management of Northampton Business School - Essay Example From the report it is clear that  the organizations have realized that the key to an efficient running of a business operation or any management process is efficient access and storage of information. The electronic Database management system was designed to fulfil two primary needs, storage and access of data in a time efficient manner. The traditional database management was cumbersome and was not centralized.This discussion highlights that  information was limited within departmental boundaries of the organization. It was difficult for one department to access data of another department. Now with the development of computerized databases, data entry and data access, both are performed in a centralized manner.  The data can now be stored in a centralized server and can be accessed by all the departments. As a result, access to information has become faster which gives employees more time to invest in other endeavours. Thus, it can be stated that database management system has increased the productivity of an organization. Incorporation of database management into an organization is a perfect example of restructuring a management with the help of technology.  The database is to be used to monitor students’ activity, their attendance, individual grades, enrolled courses, performance rating and behavioural conduct. The entity relationship structure will further describe the database and how it is linked to the entire organization of a centralized operation.

'Anti-capitalism today is a meaningless concept.' Do you agree Essay

'Anti-capitalism today is a meaningless concept.' Do you agree - Essay Example Capitalistic ideology organises an economic system so that production systems and mechanisms utilised to transport products are owned by private citizens or private businesses rather than by government actors. In opposite accord, anti-capitalism consists of a variety of different ideologies and movements that radically oppose capitalistic principles and philosophies. Those who adhere to the anti-capitalist movement desire to replace capitalism with another, more relevant and socially responsible system. The anti-capitalist dogma essentially iterates that state governments are significantly wasteful with resources and inefficient economically (Beinhocker 2006). As a result, the anti-capitalist creed suggests that the means of production should be controlled by labourer cooperatives and the economy organised more efficiently instead of concentrating power and wealth among only a small segment within society which tends to be an outcome of utilising capitalistic mechanisms. Anti-capital ism desires to remove labour exploitation from the economic system, giving them greater autonomy and liberation from the systems in a corporate context that serve to discipline workers for non-compliance to elite corporate regimes that control power resources meant to benefit broader society. It has been suggested that in today’s globalised environment, anti-capitalism is a meaningless concept. However, there is ample support that the anti-capitalism doctrine offers solid arguments about the inefficiency, financial waste and inequality that occurs as a result of capitalism. Anti-capitalism, therefore, is not a meaningless concept. It provides rational and ethically-based objections about the lack of justice and equality that occurs through the utilisation of capitalistic systems. Anti-capitalism philosophy is quite relevant even today which will be illustrated through consultation with a variety of literature and theorist perspectives that essentially serve to condemn capital ism as being a viable and relevant economic model. Characteristics of capitalist ideology Adam Smith, a moral philosopher and founder of political economy, would have been a proponent for the relevance of capitalistic ideology. In his 1776 book, The Wealth of Nations, Smith stated: "The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities - that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state." (Smith 1977, p.84). Smith believed in the exploitation of labourers for the pursuit of ensuring corporate stability and profitability and providing guarantees that government would be supported through the payment of private citizen taxes which is based on their wages and profits earned through labour. Smith proposed that corporations should maintain a primary objective of earning revenues so long as there is some dimension of corporate responsibili ty which provides a benefit back to the communities in which businesses thrive. Hence, this ideology served as the foundation for modern capitalism in which businesses or private citizens are allowed to accumulate wealth and control factors of production and product distribution without maintaining concern for those that are

The Importance of Sex Education in Todays Schools Essay Example for Free

The Importance of Sex Education in Todays Schools Essay What did you learn about in school today honey? Oh, we did some proofs in Geometry, practiced past tense verbs in Spanish, and learned about sexually transmitted diseases in Health class. Suddenly, all goes silent, and the subject is quickly changed to something else. One of the most controversial issues facing todays schools is whether or not sexual education, or sex ed, should continue to be taught to children. On one hand, some argue that it should, because children need to be properly educated on this topic and the potential consequences that can result from it. However, many others oppose this viewpoint, arguing that sex ed is a personal subject for parents to discuss with their children, and therefore does not belong in an academic setting. While both of these viewpoints have their strengths as well as their limitations, it is extremely important for sex ed to continue to be taught in todays schools. Not only will students be properly educated on how to prevent negative sexual outcomes, such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unintended pregnancies, but also on the wide range of topics related to sexual health, such as communication, relationships, and decision-making. Overall, sex education has both physical as well as emotional benefits for school-aged children. Of course, there are several reasonable objections to sexuality education curriculum being taught in todays schools. First, it is argued that  sexuality is an inappropriate topic to be taught in schools, for schools are a place to learn typical academic subjects such as Math, Science, or English. In addition, those who are against sex ed assert that sex is a personal matter and should only be taught to children by their parents. In other words, it is the parents responsibility to provide sexuality education for their own children (Goldman 5). This would be a reasonable point to make. After all, parents are the first and most readily accessible of all the teachers from whom children learn (Goldman 6). Further, children consistently report that they want to receive information from their parents regarding sex (Goldman 6), suggesting that they would rather learn about sexual activity from their parents than from teachers. Finally, opponents of sexuality education curriculum argue that teaching this topic in schools essentially condones teenage sex, and thus will result in more teens engaging in sexual activity. However, these opposing positions have their limitations. Researchers point out that sex ed is after all, an academic subject, so it is appropriate that it is included in schools curriculum (Hamilton, Sanders, and Anderman 3). Sex ed is not a class taught on its own, but rather a component of schools health classes. The problem is, people mistakenly believe that sex ed only refers to sexual behavior, such as sexual intercourse, and not the full array of topics that comprise sexuality (Implementing, par. 4). These topics include information on:  abstinence, body image, contraception, gender, human growth and development, human reproduction, pregnancy, relationships, safer sex (prevention of sexually transmitted infections), sexual attitudes and values, sexual anatomy and physiology, sexual behavior, sexual health, sexual orientation, and sexual pleasure. (Implementing, par. 4) From this information, it can be concluded that sex ed does not just discuss sexual activity as critics claim. Rather, it teaches students about several important life topics regarding sexual health and human relationships. The argument that parents should be the sole educators on sexuality has its  limitations as well. The fact is, not all parents are talking to their children about sex. A nationally representative survey commissioned by the Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) and the Center for Latino Adolescent and Family Health (CLAFH) revealed that 57% of parents either feel only slightly comfortable or uncomfortable talking to their children about sex and sexual health (Parents, par. 6). Also, additional research has shown that many parents do not provide relevant, timely, developmentally appropriate or even enough sexuality education for their own children, and the education they do provide is perceived by their children as infrequent and of poor quality (Goldman 6). So even if parents are talking to their children about sex, they may not be giving their children a proper or complete education. A study conducted on the salience and utility of school sexuality education for young men found that for most young men, school sex education appeared to be the only substantive source of information they had received on sexual matters (Goldman 8). Finally, if parents really feel that they are the best educators regarding sexuality and do not want schools teaching their children this topic, they have the right to pull their children out of the program. According to the California Department of Education, the law recognizes that parents have the ultimate responsibility for teaching their children about human sexuality and may choose to withdraw their children from this instruction (California Department of Education #15). Schools are required to notify parents at the beginning of the school year about planned comprehensive sexual health education and HIV/AIDS prevention education and give parents the opportunity to review materials as well as the opportunity to request in writing that their child not participate in the instruction (California Department of Education #15). In closing, sexual education is a vital component in todays academic curriculum, for it may be the only source from which some children receive accurate information regarding sexual health. Finally, there is the false belief that providing comprehensive sexual education in schools endorses sexual activity and will lead to more teenagers having sex. However, research shows just the opposite: knowledge of sexuality is much more likely to lead to informed decision making, delayed sexual intercourse, responsible interpersonal behavior, and  self-protection strategies (Goldman 7). In addition, a study that examined sex education in California public schools revealed that curriculum-based, comprehensive sexuality education, which involves instruction that includes a focus on abstinence, as well as inclusive information about contraception and sexually transmitted diseases, has been shown to delay sexual activity (Combellick and Brindis 3). The belief that teaching children about sexual education endorses premarital sex is erroneous because school-based sex education has been shown to delay, rather than hasten, the onset of sexual activity (Goldman 7). It can now be seen tha t these three common objections to sexual education curriculum being included in todays schools have their limitations. Comprehensive sexual education programs can greatly benefit school-aged children. With this curriculum in place, children will receive a complete education on the risks associated with sex, such as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unintentional pregnancies, and how to avoid these outcomes. This knowledge has been shown to decrease the number of unintentional teenage pregnancies as well as STDs. One study revealed that teenagers who received a comprehensive sex education were significantly less likely to report a teen pregnancy compared to those who received no sex education (Kohler, Manhart, and Lafferty). According to the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS), this likelihood is about 50 percent lower, a tremendous finding. In addition, school-based sex education efficiently reduces the incidence of negative sexual outcomes as well as increases teenagers intentions to adopt safer sex behaviors (Kumar, Lim, Langford, Seabrook, Speechley, and Linch; Goldman 7). Thus, sexual education programs can play a tremendous role in reducing the number of teenage pregnancies and STD cases. In addition, sex education programs are necessary in todays schools because children are undergoing sexual development at much younger ages than in previous generations. Over the past decade or so, the age at which children start puberty has gone down considerably. According to WebMD.com, American boys are starting puberty at an average age of ten; two years earlier than the average age from twenty years ago (DeNoon par. 1). Similarly, girls tend  to start puberty around age eleven, but some can start as young as eight or nine years old (Watson). With the onset of puberty, children undergo many hormonal and physical changes that they may not fully understand without proper instruction. Furthermore, adolescence, defined as the ages between 10 and 19 years (Goldman 4), is a crucial stage in sexual development as well as for learning about healthy sexuality (Kumar; Goldman 20). In Goldmans study, surveyed children viewed puberty and its implications for the maturation of human development as a major part of their body, self-identity, and social and interpersonal norms (20). In other words, children are aware of the important role puberty plays in their physical, emotional, and social development. Thus, sexual education should remain a part of todays schools curriculum, so children will continue to be fully educated on the rapid physical and emotional changes they are undergoing. However, as is the case with all arguments, this position has its limitations. Students being educated about sexuality at school may feel like they do not need to discuss this topic with their parents. As a result, sexual education programs could indirectly discourage students from talking to their parents about sex. Additionally, even if schools are teaching comprehensive sexual education programs, some students may not retain all of the information they receive. One study found that a majority of the surveyed adolescents demonstrated significant gaps in sexual knowledge even though they had successfully completed their high school sex ed requirements (Kumar et al.). Finally, despite the fact that 22 states require public schools to teach sex ed, the United States still has the highest teen birth rate in the industrialized world: three out of ten girls in the U.S. will become pregnant at least once before their 20th birthday (State). In addition, about nine million cases of STDs occur among teenagers and young adults in the United States every year (Weinstock) even though 33 states require HIV/AIDS instruction in schools (State). However, these limitations do not take into account that 28 U.S. states do not require sexual education to be taught in public schools. As a result, not all students are receiving a complete education on sexuality, which includes instruction on how to prevent pregnancies and STDs. After all, only  about five percent of young people in the United States get a complete and comprehensive sexuality education (Goldman 19). In addition, only 14% of school districts in the U.S. permit comprehensive sexuality education to be offered to students (Goldman 15). Therefore, the high number of teen pregnancies and STD cases in the U.S. could be attributed to a lack of comprehensive sex education programs, not an overabundance of them. Overall, sexual education programs are an integral component of school-aged childrens academic curriculum, as much as the public has come to realize. More than 90% of parents of junior high and high school students believe that it is important for sex ed to be taught in the classroom (Facts #10). Moreover, teachers, parents, and students all agree that schools should provide quality sex ed, including knowledge, skills, and values, that will enable school-aged children to make timely choices and thought-out decisions for themselves (Goldman 20). Thus, it can be seen that sex education is already a widely supported component of elementary and secondary academic curriculum. Finally, sex education should continue to be taught in schools because it educates children on many important life skills. Sexuality has several different topics associated with it, such as human development, relationships, communication and decision making (Siecus par. 5.). When people think of sex ed, they generally do not think of these life skills. However, sex involves numerous life decisions, from choosing to abstain to choosing a birth control method. In addition, communication and relationships are an integral part of sexuality, because it is a union that involves two separate people. Plus, students who received a comprehensive sex education were more likely to report having better communication with their parents (Hamilton 5). Due to this wide array of topics covered, it is no wonder that high school sexual education classes received the highest average rating of usefulness among all listed sources (Kumar et al.). Sex education programs truly benefit todays school-age children in countless ways. There is no doubt that sex education in todays schools is a controversial  issue, however, it must continue to be taught. Children who do not receive proper instruction on this topic at home need a place where they can receive accurate information regarding sexuality. Furthermore, this academic subject will help students learn the skills necessary to make informed decisions regarding their sexual health and avoid negative sexual outcomes. Finally, it is so important for sex education to be taught in schools so that developing children can learn about their changing bodies as well as numerous important life skills. Sex education should no longer be viewed as an inappropriate topic to be taught in schools, but rather as an essential component of school-aged childrens education. Works Cited California Department of Education. Frequently Asked Questions. _CDE.CA.GOV._ California Department of Education, 19 Sep. 2013. Web. 3 Nov. 2013. Combellick, Sarah, MPH and Claire Brindis, DrPh. Uneven Progress: Sex Education in California Public Schools. _Bixby Center for Global Reproductive Health,_ Nov. 2011. Web. 3 Nov. 2013. DeNoon, Daniel J. Earlier Puberty: Age 9 or 10 for Average U.S. Boy. _Children.WebMD.com._ WebMD LLC., 12 Oct. 2012. Web. 5 Nov. 2013. Goldman, Juliette D. G. Responding To Parental Objections To School Sexuality Education: A Selection Of 12 Objections. _Sex Education_ 8.4 (2008): 415-438. _Education Research Complete_. Web. 2 Nov. 2013 Hamilton, Rashea, Megan Sanders, and Eric M. Anderman. The Multiple Choices Of Sex Education. _Phi Delta Kappan_ 94.5 (2013): 34-39. _ERIC_. Web. 1 Nov. 2013. Kohler, Pamela, et al., Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy, _Journal of Adolescent Health_ 42.4 (March 2008); 344-351. Web. 4 Nov. 2013. Kumar, Maya M., et al. Sexual Knowledge Of Canadian Adolescents After Completion Of High School Sexual Education Requirements. _Paediatrics Child Health (1205-7088)_ 18.2 (2013): 74-80. _Academic Search Complete._ Web. 1 Nov. 2013. National Conference of State Legislatures. State Policies on Sex Education in Schools. National Conference of State Legislatures, 1 July 2013. Web. 6 Nov. 2013. Planned Parenthood. _Implementing Sex Education._ Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc, 2013. Web. 3 Nov. 2013. Planned Parenthood. _New Poll: Parents are Talking With Their Kids About Sex but Often Not Tackling Harder Issues._ Planned Parenthood Federation of America Inc, 3 Oct. 2011. Web. 3 Nov 2013. _Support the Real Education for Healthy Youth Act._ Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States, n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2013. Watson, Stephanie. Dealing with Early Puberty. _Teens.WebMD.com._ WebMD LLC., 17 Nov. 2011. Web. 5 Nov. 2013. Weinstock, H., et al., Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among American Youth: Incidence and Prevalence Estimates, 2000, _Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health_, 2004, 36(1):6-10. Web. 7 Nov. 2013

Translatability and Poetic Translation Essay Example for Free

Translatability and Poetic Translation Essay Translation used to be considered an inter-language transfer of meaning, which is the point of departure for research and study. Many earlier definitions demonstrate this, using source language and target language as their technical terms. Moreover, translation theories strictly confined themselves within the sphere of linguistics. For many years the popular trend in the translation circles had been perfect faithfulness to the original both in content and in form and it had been regarded as the iron criterion as if from the holy Bible for translators to observe. The godly status and the impossible idealistic belief were not altered until new thoughts arose with the respect of consideration of target readers, the unavoidable translator subjectivity and the purpose and function of translations. This thesis, starting to look from new angles such as the accommodation to target cultural conventions, the translators consciousness of linguistic and cultural adaptations to make it easy for readers to understand translated works without too much pain and effort, and translation as a purposeful endeavor. Translation is then understood as a much more complicated activity with a much broader scope. Translation of poetry was, and still is by some, believed as impossibility for any unfaithful elements would have been taken as failure, be it content or form. The arguments include linguistic elements and cultural elements. Most importantly the myth of untranslatability looks upon poetry as beauty itself which is untouchable for once it is touched it is destroyed. But as translation of poetry has never been stagnant though sometimes vigorous and sometimes not, there is strong evidence in both translation history and present day practice that poetic translation, a literary form as distinguished from fiction, drama, and prose, is translatable. Poetry itself serves a purpose, be it an illusive matter, and aesthetics can be reproduced in another language and culture if accommodation is made. It would be highly likely that the target readers would obtain rather similar if not the same aesthetic pleasure reading the translation as would the source readers reading the original poem. And this is, I believe, the only criterion in evaluating and assessing what is a successful piece of translation. Of course there are other functions of poetry like informative, didactic, cognitive, practical and even entertainment functions. The aesthetic function stays at the top of the list, though. In other words, if a translation fails to perform the aesthetic function it is in my eyes a bad translation, no matter how well the form is preserved. A word-for-word translation may be judged faithful in form, but it is failure in terms of the performance of functions. As aesthetics of one people influences them with different elements from that of another, accommodation in translation is of urgent necessity. Often loss or addition is made to achieve that end and sometimes only some elements are preserved while other elements are neglected. This is inevitable or there will be no translation, which means if one fears any loss or addition, one should learn to read the original always instead of reading the translated version. But how many of us can do that? The thesis aims at breaking the myth of untranslatability of poetry and argues from the appropriate understanding of translation to the various functions of poetry. And in the end it suggests, with examples taken from well-acknowledged translators of poetry, some strategies for poetic translators so that global talk opens up another channel for human communication. We will understand one another better. The detailed organization is as follows. This thesis, starting from a brief account of old ideas of the untranslatability of poetry, proposes instead a hypothesis that poetry is translatable (Chapter One). In the next chapter (Chapter Two) an analysis of why poetry is untranslatable is made in both linguistic and cultural respects. It goes on giving a detailed analysis of translation in general, its various definitions, its multiple functions and the authors own idea of it (Chapter Three). Then literary translation is discussed, involving its features and main functionaesthetic value which is the very core in poetic translation as well (Chapter Four). Chapter Five deals with features of poetic translation, treating at the beginning the relationship between poetry and aesthetics and then making a comparison of Sino-west poetic theories. What follows is a discussion of the longstanding issue of form vs content and the criteria of poetic translation. At the end of this chapter, the function of poetry is discussed. Chapter Six suggests some strategies in poetic translation, all with a strong consciousness of compensation of possible loss of the source text. The thesis ends with a conclusionpoetry is translatable. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. 1 UNTRANSLATABILITY—WHAT THEY ARE SAYING Traduttore-traditore. (Translator = traitor. ), says the well-known Italian phrase. â€Å" Poetry is what gets lost in translation,† Robert Frost says. Western tradition and culture is founded on untranslatability. This may sound like a paradox, if one thinks of the long tradition of translatio studii or translatio imperii in the culture, or if you just ponder the very word tradition . Tradition, from Latin tradere (‘hand over), implies a process of communication, transmission, and transference that necessarily allows for the transformation, whether in terms of â€Å"losses† or â€Å"gains,† usually associated with what we consensually mean by translation. To translate is not to say the same thing in another tongue, but to make manifest a different thing. This may sound close to what we used to call â€Å"the impossibility of translation. Croce (quoted in Carravetta, 1997) holds that poets cannot be compared, as each is unique. Translation is impossible; it is only a pedagogical necessity. The responsibility of the interpreter is to capture the mood or state of being (stato danimo) of its author. In modern times some scholars have come to realize that something in a language can not be fully translated into another, in other words, there is an inevitable loss of meaning. Catford (1965), a celebrated translation scholar of the linguistic school, raises the issue of untranslatability with a new perspective. He argues that linguistic untranslaltability is due to the difference in the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL), whereas cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL of relevant situational features. Dabeluet and Viney (quoted in Wilss, 2001), in the fruitful book A comparative French and English Stylistics have analyzed in detail the points of linguistic difference between the two languages, differences that constitute areas where translation is impossible. Popovic (quoted in Wilss, 2001) also has attempted to define untranslatability without making a separation between the linguistic and cultural factors. Nida (1984) presents a rich source of information about the problems of loss in translation, in particular about the difficulties encountered by the translators when facing with terms or concepts in SL that do not exist in TL. Newmark (1982) has also once briefly talked about the deviation in translation. In Chinese translation history, in contemporary and modern day translation circles, many experts and scholars have also discussed the problem to some extent in their empirical assertions and research papers. As early as the flourishing period of Buddhist scriptures, the problem of untranslatability was mentioned and a rather strong expression was used to criticize certain versions as ‘feeding others what one has munched in his own mouth'( , my translation), not mentioning translation of poetry. Zhu guangqian (Zhu, 1987: 113) says that the reason why poetry translation poses more difficulty than prose translation lies in that poetry stress more on its musical quality while prose emphasizes more on meaning. Translating meaning is apparently easier than translating the musical quality (my translation). Chinese, unlike English, uses characters which are all single syllables, namely, one character as one syllable. So phrases and clauses are easily arranged into even number phrases and neat even number couplets, if the need arises for comparison or contrast. However, the western languages have strict grammatical rules, requiring fixed structures that forbids free inversions or disorders. If translating literally according to the Chinese form, confusion emerges. (Ibid: 201) (my translation) Poetry can not only be translated into a foreign language nor can it be translated into another style or another historical period of the same language because the sound and meaning of the language change with the times. Modern syllables and rhythms can not replace those needed in ancient language and modern associated meaning can not replace the ancient associated meaning (Ibid: 223) (my translation). Chen Shuxin (Chen, 2000) proposes that poetic untranslatability mainly lies in the transference of the beauty of the original sound. If put in order, the transference of sound stays at the top of the list, then form and style, lastly meaning (my translation). Wen Yiduo (Zhu, 1925: 149) exemplifies untranslatability as follows: â€Å"Li Bai stands between the ancient style and contemporary style. His wul u , which consists of five characters in each line and eight lines altogether, has the soul of ancient style and the body of the contemporary which is characterized with abundant embellishment. The embellished style may be translatable but not the poetic power. Nevertheless Li Bai without his tremendous power is no longer himself†. (my translation) For example, the lines , was translated as : (1. 1) The smoke from the cottages curls Up around the citron trees, And the hues of late autumn are On the green paulownias. â€Å"What is the matter? † Mr Zhu asks, â€Å"The glorious beauty of the Chinese poem, once transformed into English should become so barren and mediocre! Such precious lines as these are untranslatable for they are too subtle and too refined. If one has to translate it anyway, it is doomed to be destroyed. Beauty is untouchable. If it is touched, it dies. † ( my translation) (Ibid: 150). But Zhu later has to admit in another book that translation is not intended for the original author or those who understand the source language. It should not intend to compare with the original. It is impossible and unnecessary to please the reader who understands the source language with ones translation (my translation) (Ibid: 154). In summary, I find that those who stick to untranslatbility are but two kinds of people. Some strictly believe the holiness of the original text and others the absoluteness of the unity of meaning and form in a certain language. And they, idealistically, do not allow any addition or loss of meaning in the transferring process as in translation, which is actually inevitable and is a rule rather than an exception. 1. 2 TRANSLATABILITY A HYPOTHESIS Translation work, in its present form, dates back more than a thousand years in China and in Western countries. The ever-lasting practice of translation itself manifests the translatability of languages. Therefore, it stands to reason that a language can be translated from one language into another. Under the guide of this perception, former scholars usually probe into the problem of translation from an instinctive and empirical point of view. Not all words need to be translated. Some cannot. Some can be transcribable, but if there is no cultural equivalent, whether it is translatable or not it still needs to be explained, just like a jargon needs to be explained to the non-specialist in a footnote. Words, expressions or interjections that are exclusive to a culture, a religion or a jargon cannot always be translated in a satisfactory way because the same thing does not exist in the other languages culture. In many cases such words with no perfect equivalent are the words that end up being borrowed by the other language, sometimes with a possible spelling adaptation to ease pronunciation in the other language. Jacobson ( 1966: 238) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001) comes to the conclusion that poetry by definition is untranslatable. Only creative transposition is possible. With this as a prerequisite, translation of poetry should and must be translatable. Historically speaking, the activity of poetic translation has always been there, popular at one time and losing momentum at another, though always being practiced. In other words, whenever human communication is necessary, translation will live on and maintain a firm and fast stronghold. The reason is simple but unavoidable—we, as a nation or a country, are not living alone. As long as we do not lock ourselves up, translation will be translatable, be it scientific translation or poetic translation. Many translators in contemporary and modern China have made and are making outstanding contributions to the literary and poetic exchanges between China and the West through their diligent and painstaking work. Xu Yuanchong, for instance, has translated several books of Chinese ancient poems into English, the most important being the The 300 Hundred Tang Poems . Gu Zhengkun, by rendering into English The Collection of Mao Zedongs Poems , is another example to have introduced Chinese poetry to readers of English. Foreigners include Arthur Waley, Herbert Giles, Witter Bynner, W. J. B. Fletcher, James Legg, Amy Lowell, etc. Translators from English into English are, needless to say, numerous, such as Bian Zhilin, Guo Moruo, Tu Ang, Huang Gaoxin, Jiang Feng, Cao Minglun , and Zhu Chunshen, to name but a few for the present purpose. All these people do not only support the idea that translation of poetry is possible but provide living proof by their many well-received and highly-acclaimed translated works. 2. UNTRANSLATABILITY—ANALYSIS OF WHY. Lets see what specialists say, to begin with, about the nature and essence of translation. Ebel (1969: 50) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001) says that indeed, modern translation theory denies the very existence of translation as it has previously been understood, i. e. as the replacement of an utterance in one language by another, so that the two are interchangeable. The dream of â€Å"literal† or â€Å"close† translation, which culminated in the attempt to computerize translation, has given way in turn to what might be termed a higher subjectivity. Since â€Å"there are connections but not correlations or diagnostic correspondences between cultural norms and linguistic patterns†, no language is ever a valid substitute for another; â€Å"faithfulness† in translation is thus impossible. Gipper (1972: 91) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001: 41) believes that translation is and will continue to be a relative concept. It could be said that every translation represents a transposition from the perspectives of one linguistic view of the world to those of another and that this cannot take place entirely without changes or metamorphoses (change of form or character). Durbeck (1975: 8) (quoted in Wolfram Wilss, 2001: 42) holds that the world view of ones native tongue is dominant, thus making man a ‘prisoner of his language†. Wolfram Wilss (Ibid: 49) says, â€Å"The translatability of a text can thus be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be re-contextualized in TL, taking into account all linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. †¦The translatability of a text is thus guaranteed by the existence of universal categories in syntax, semantics, and the (natural) logic of experience. †¦Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the linguistic form has a function beyond that of conveying factual relationships and is therefore a constituent part of the functional equivalence to be achieved. This, for example, is true of play on words, which can usually be adequately translated semantically but not stylistically. † For instance, (2. 1) 1)-Are you training for a race ? – No, Im racing for a train. 2) Just because I am chased dont get the idea I am chaste . These are examples of linguistic play of words. (2. 2) 1) The problems of the world are easily soluble in wine. 2) Pay your taxes with a smile. These are instances of cultural play of words. Catford(1965: 99) believes that Cultural untranslatability is usually less â€Å"absolute† than linguistic untranslatability. Nida (1969: 483) holds that relative adequacy of inter-lingual communication are based on two fundamental factors: 1) semantic similarities between languages, due no doubt in large measure to the common core of human experience; and 2) fundamental similarities in the syntactic structures of languages, especially at the so-called kernel, or core, level. 2. 1 LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS Levy (1967: 58) (as quoted in Wilss, 2001: 124) thinks that the translator frequently finds himself in a conflict-and-decision-marked situation during the translation process, a situation which becomes all the more difficult to master, the more complex the textual segment to be translated is in terms of syntax, semantics and stylistics. In recent years the scope of linguistics has widened beyond the confines of the individual sentence. Text linguistics attempts to account for the form of texts in terms of their users. If we accept that meaning is something that is negotiated between producers and receivers to texts, it follows that the translator, as a special kind of text user, intervenes in this process of negotiation, to relay it across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In doing so, the translator is necessarily handling such matters as intended meaning, implied meaning, presupposed meaning, all on the basis of the evidence which the text supplies. The various domains of socio-linguistics, pragmatics and discourse linguistics are all areas of study which are germane (pertinent) to this process ( Hatim Mason,1990: 133). The focus of translation studies would be shifted away from the incidental incompatibilities among languages toward the systematic communicative factors shared by languages. Only in light of this new focus can such issues as equivalence and translation evaluation be satisfactorily clarified. Ke (Ke, 1999) says that the problem of translatability or untranslatability is closely related to mans understanding of the nature of language, meaning and translation. From the socio-semiotic point of view, â€Å"untranslatables† are fundamentally cases of language use wherein the three categories of socio-semiotic meaning carried by a source expression do not coincide with those of a comparable expression in the target language. Three types of untranslatability, referential, pragmatic, and intra-lingual may be the carrier of the message. Language-specific norms considered untranslatable by some linguists should be excluded from the realm of untranslatables. And since translation is a communicative event involving the use of verbal signs, the chance of untranslatability in practical translating tasks may be minimized if the communicative situation is taken into account. In a larger sense, the problem of translatability is one of degree: the higher the linguistic levels the source language signs carry meaning(s) at, the higher the degree of translatability these signs may display; the lower the levels they carry meaning(s) at, the lower the degree of translatability they may register. 2. 2 CULTURAL ELEMENTS Translation practice is one of the strategies a culture devises for dealing with what we have learned to call the â€Å"Other† (a term borrowed from Lefevere, 2001, meaning a culture different from ones own—my interpretation). The development of a translational strategy therefore also provides good indications of the kind of society one is dealing with. The fact that China, for instance, developed translational strategies only three times in its history, with the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from roughly the second to seventh centuries AD, with the translation of the Christian scriptures starting in the sixteenth century AD, and with the translation of much Western thought and literature starting in nineteenth century AD, says something abut the image of the Other dominant in Chinese civilization, namely that the Other was not considered very important, only as ‘branches or leaves instead of the ‘trunk. Cultures that are relatively homogeneous tend to see their own way of doing things as ‘naturally, the only way, which just as naturally becomes the ‘best way when confronted with other ways. When such cultures themselves take over elements from outside, they will, once again, naturalize them without too many qualms and too many restrictions. When Chinese translate texts produced by others outside its boundaries, it translates these texts in order to replace them, pure and simple. The translations take the place of the originals. They function as the originals in the culture to the extent that the originals disappear behind the translations. The Chinese were forced to deal with the Other by the spread of Buddhism, which did not threaten the fabric of society, and therefore could be acculturated rather easily on the terms of the receiving, Chinese society. This is apparent not just from the manner of translating, but even more so from the fact that Taoist concepts were used in translations to acculturate Buddhist concepts. ( quoted from Bassnett Lefevere, 2001: 169) What are the options the translator faces ? We suggest they are as follows: Is the element being translated obligatory or optional in the TL text format? If it is obligatory, is the order in which it occurs appropriate for the TL text format? If it is obligatory and the order is appropriate, will iteration (repetition), if there is any, be appropriate in the TL text format? The less evaluative the text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified in translation. Conversely, the more evaluative the text is, the more scope there may be for modification. (ibid: 187) The less culture-bound (treaties, declarations, resolutions, and other similar documents) a text is, the less need there will be for its structure to be modified in translation. Conversely, the more culture-bound a text is, the more scope there may be for modification. 2. 2. 1 HISTORICAL ELEMENTS There are numerous examples in both English and Chinese that exhibit historical elements deeply rooted in the languages. Idioms and legends always provide ready support in this respect. Once an idiom or fixed expressions has been recognized, we need to decide how to translate it into the target language. Here the question is not whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. Maybe its easier to translate an opaque expression than a transparent one. The main difficulties in the translation may be summarized as follows. An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language. One language may express a given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it by means of an idiom, and so on. So it is unrealistic to expect to find equivalent idioms and expressions in the target language in all cases. The idioms and expressions may be culture-specific which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate. The expressions such as hot dog ( ) and Kangaroo Court ( ) which relate to specific cultural background provide good examples. An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations, they may not be pragmatically transferable. The expression such as make a come-back ( , ) , though similar in meaning, the contexts in which the two idioms can be used are obviously different. Make a come-back is usually in positive occasions, but is usually used in negative occasions. An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses at the same time. The expression such as kick down the ladder ( ) is a good example . It means treat with contempt those through whose assistance one has risen to a position of importance . It refers to the rising up politically or socially. But ? in Chinese translation refers to the tool or means to overcome difficulties, and is widely and commonly used. They are similar in the point of forget the help, and do harm to ( ) but different in details. Legends are of a quite similar character. What is a legendary hero in one language, for example, King Arthur in English may not be known in another language, such as Chinese. Without necessary annotation the target reader would be certainly at a loss. But if a Chinese legendary figure is loaned to serve the purpose of a courageous and brave man, the readers may be wondering if the English people also have such a legend, which may result in misunderstanding. Translation from Chinese into English exhibits the same problem. 2. 2. 2 GEOGRAPHICAL ELEMENTS Just as the Chinese saying goes that a people of one geographical location is different from that of another, translation of geographical terms is where another problem is encountered. Recognition and familiarity of the geography is of immense help to bring about the readers association, thus making comprehension easier. On the contrary, without a sense of geography, the readers have only their imagination in their power to employ. Translation of the following Chinese poem is a case in point. (2. 3) , . , . Xu Yuanchongs translation of the geographical location liaoxi becomes ‘frontier, which provides enough space for readers association even without a note to explain it. Unlike Xu, another translator uses pinyin and has it annotated, saying it is the frontier of the battlefield. Herbert Giles also translated this poem. (2. 4) Drive the young orioles away, Nor let them on the branches play; Their chirping breaks my slumber through And keep me from my dreams of you. In this translation the translator dismisses the geographical location liaoxi altogether, for it would be difficult for English readers to associate the place with the frontier where her husband has been summoned. (Lu,, 2002: 255) The reason why the geographical name is omitted is that the translator feels no need to burden the target reader who would know little where that place is while for a Chinese the association is immediate, activating a vivid picture of the harsh environment for the poor soldiers, hungry, cold with knee-deep snow and whipping wind, hopeless of returning safe and sound, and confronted with the deadly barbarian enemy. 2. 2. 3 RELIGIOUS ELEMENTS Lindbeck in his article The Gospels Uniqueness: Election and Untranslatability says: â€Å" This essay is an experiment in looking at the uniqueness of Christianity from the perspective of religions as community-forming comprehensive semiotic systems. Uniqueness in this outlook consists formally of untranslatability and materially of the unsubstitutable memories and narratives which shape communities identities†. The Biblical story is well known. It has two main chapters: chapter one, Babel (Genesis 11: 1-9); chapter two, the Pentecost (Genesis 10: 9-11). In Genesis, the Almighty creates the different human languages to colonize an upstart humanity and thus secure the untranslatability of his own divinity. In the Acts of the Apostles, the miracle of total intelligibility, because it is a miracle and not a first instance of simultaneous translation, transcends language difference, and hence humanity, and thus once again presupposes and guarantees the ungraspable ideal of Gods absolute meaning. The Babelic confusion of languages imposed by a jealous God, on the one hand, and the gift of the Holy Ghost in the Pentecostal cloven tongues of fire granted by a proselytizing god, on the other, both tell the same story of imperial identity and subjugated otherness. One single language is good, for it bespeaks the untouchable self-sameness of the deity. If we follow the argument above, then translation simply becomes ‘mission impossible. Yet translation of all kinds of religious scriptures are taking place all the time, with either meaning addition or loss of the original. And the ideas are spreading far and wide. Untranslatability of the divinity is only of pedantic research value, not barring the way of the translators practicing translations, much less the way of the common people fervent to learn about divinity. 3. TRANSLATION IN GENERAL 3. 1 TRANSLATION VS MEANING It is universally agreed that translation means translating meaning. What is meaning, then? As G. Steiner (1975: 45) points out, and as much research into the reading process has shown, each act of reading a text is in itself an act of translation, i. e. an interpretation. We seek to recover what is ‘meant in a text from the whole range of possible meanings, in other words, from the meaning potential which Halliday (1978: 109) defines as â€Å"the paradigmatic range of semantic choice that is present in the system, and to which the members of a culture have access in their language†. Inevitably, we feed our own beliefs, knowledge, attitudes and so on into our processing of texts, so that any translation will, to some extent, reflect the translators own mental and cultural outlook, despite the best of impartial intentions. No doubt, the risks are reduced to a minimum in most scientific and technical, legal and administrative translating; but cultural predispositions can creep in where least expected (Hatim Mason. 1990: 11). In literary translating, the process of constant reinterpretation is most apparent. The translators reading of the source text is but one among infinitely many possible readings, yet it is the one which tends to be imposed upon the readership of the TL version. Since an important feature of poetic discourse is to allow a multiplicity of responses among SL readers, it follows that the translators task should be to preserve, as far as possible, the range of possible responses; in other words, not to reduce the dynamic role of the reader. The readers purposes can be divided into two types: for comparative literary research (intellectual) and foreign literature appreciation (aesthetic). For different purposes the translator may translate differently. Translation is a matter of choice, but choice is always motivated: omission, additions and alterations may indeed be justified but only in relation to intended meaning (Hatim Mason. 1990: 12). The translators motivations are inextricably bound up with the socio-cultural context in which the act of translating takes place. Consequently, it is important to judge translating activity only within a social context. Before there is translation, for example, there has to be a need for translation. In fact, the social context of translating is probably a more important variable than the textual genre, which has imposed such rigid distinctions on types of translating in the past (‘literary translation, ‘scientific and technical translation, ‘religious translation, etc. ) Divisions of this kind tend to mask certain fundamental similarities between texts from different fields. There are regularities of discourse procedures which transcend the boundaries between genres and which it is our aim to describe. Nida (1975) discusses translation from the point of view of semantic componential analysis, which consists in common (shared) components (the overlapping features of the single lexical units of a word field); diagnostic (contrastive) components (features which distinguish the meaning of individual lexical units of a word field or lexical units with more than one meaning); supplementary components (semantically optional secondary features which often have a connotative in addition to fundamental meaning/denote: be the sign or symbol of character and can cause metaphorical extensions). I have done some research from the perspective of hermeneutics which studies meaning in human communication. Modern ideas on hermeneutics hold that the writer may be an editor or a redactor and that he may have used sources. In considering this aspect of discourse one must take into account the writers purpose in writing as well as his cultural milieu. Secondly, one must consider the narrator in the writing who is usually different from the writer. Sometime