Human Factors in Aviation for Pilots

Human Factors in Aviation for Pilots Human Factors in Aviation for Pilots Introduction The term â€Å"human factor† belongs to the wide range of matters affecting how people achieve tasks in their non-work and work environments. The commercial aviation industry has recognized that human error causes most aviation incidents and accidents rather than mechanical failure. If interpreted intently, human factors are often deemed synonymous with maintenance resource management (MRM) or crew resource management (CRM). Human factors involve collecting information about human limitations, ability and other qualities and applying it to machines, tools, tasks, systems, environments and jobs to produce comfortable, safe and effective human use. Human factors are devoted to better perception of how humans can most efficiently and safely be combined with technology. That perception is then translated into training, design, procedures, or policies to help humans work better. (GRAEBER, 2014) In spite of rapid gains in technology, humans are ultimately accountable for guaranteeing the safety and success of the aviation industry. They must continue to be flexible, knowledgeable, efficient, and dedicated while exercising good judgment. In the meantime, the industry continues to make main investments in equipment, training, and systems that have a long-standing implication. Human factors cover the knowledge of comprehending the human capabilities, the application of this knowledge to the development, design and exploitation of systems and services, and the art of guaranteeing successful application of human factor values into the maintenance working environment. Furthermore, human factors experts participate in examining operational safety and developing tools and methods to help operator better handle human error. These duties require the experts to work closely with safety experts, engineers, training and test pilots, mechanics and cabin crews to efficiently integrate huma n factors in the designing of airplanes. Human Factors in the Ground Environment Before understanding the importance of human factors we must know the term â€Å"PEAR†. It reminds the four important facts for human factor programs: People, Environment, Actions and Resources. The Aircraft Electronics Association accepts PEAR as an outstanding way to recall key concerns for a human factors program. There are as a minimum of two environments in aviation maintenance; physical work place and organizational environment. There is the physical work place in the hanger, on the ramp or in the shop while organizational environment exist within the company. A human factor should pay attention to both environments. The physical environment includes ranges of humidity, temperature, lightening, cleanliness, noise control, and workplace design. Companies must accept these conditions and collaborate with the workforce to either change or accommodate the physical environment. It takes a cooperate assurance to address the physical environment. This physical workplace covers the topic â€Å"Resources† of PEAR when it comes to providing coolers, portable heaters, clothing, lightening and task design and workplace. The second environment is organizational one. The significant factors in an organizational environment are usually related to communication, cooperation, mutual respect, shared values of the company, and their culture. An excellent organizational environment is progressed with communication, leadership and shared goals associated with profitability, safety and other key factors. The best companies support and guide their people and promote a culture of safety. We consider environmental matters as critical as other features in PEAR. . (Johnson, 2007) Aviation safety relies deeply on maintenance. When it is not done properly, it contributes to a major proportion of aviation incidents and accidents. Some examples poor maintenance are missing parts, parts installed incorrectly, and required checks not being performed. The errors of an aviation maintenance technician (AMT) can be more challenging to detect as compared with other threats to aviation safety. A lot of times, these errors are present but not visible and have possibility to remain hidden, affecting the harmless operation of aircraft for larger period of time. AMT’s tackled with many human factors unique within aviation. Most of the time, they are working in the early morning or in evening hours, in restrained spaces, and in mixture of unfavorable humidity/temperature conditions. The work can be physically tiring; it also needs attention to detail. AMTs usually spend more time on preparing for a job than actually practicing it out. Key element of all maintenance wor k is a proper documentation, and AMTs usually spend more time revising maintenance logs than they do presenting the work. Mechanical components in aircraft maintenance engineering have boundaries; technicians also have some limitations and limited capabilities when we look at the maintenance engineering system. For example, rivets used to fasten aluminum skin to fuselage that can bear forces acting to pull them apart. These rivets will ultimately fail if sufficient force is applied to them. The exact range of human limitations and capabilities are not clear as the performance range of electrical or mechanical components but the same rules apply in that human functions which is likely to damage and ultimately fail under certain conditions like stress, tensions etc. Human factors understanding can lead to enhanced quality, an environment that guarantees continuing aircraft and worker safety and a more responsible and involved work force. More precisely, the reduction of minor mistakes can provide appreciable benefits including fewer missed deadlines, cost reductions, reduction in injuries, reduction in maintenance errors and also reduction in warranty claims. Human factors in the Airborne Environment (flight desk, cockpit, formation) Men already learn how to construct wings or airplanes, which when propelled through the air at maximum speed, will not only withstand the weight of the engine, but also of the wings themselves, and of the engineer as well. Men also learn how to build screws of adequate power and lightness to drive these airplanes at sustaining speed. Inability to steer and balance still become challenging for students and have flying problems. When this feature has been controlled, the era of flying machines will have reached, for other problems are of lesser importance. (Kantowitz, 2011) Working with an aircraft in the Performance Based Airspace (PBA) will be extra challenging for the flight crews who have only worked in controlled airspace. But in real, only somewhat more challenging rules like Visual Flight Rule (VFR) are applied. The flight crew will have to handle more tasks, an arrival of basic separation responsibilities, have complete responsibility for all forms of situational awareness like mode awareness and traffic, possible greater workload under several conditions like severe weathers. To evaluate the necessary information needs of the flight crew to achieve the airborne self-separation task and to regulate the level of automation, it will be essential to study the following sub tasks; Conflict detection; Conflict privations; Traffic monitoring; Re-planning; Conflict resolution; Inter-traffic/traffic-FOC communication. It becomes clear that today’s conventional airline operations possible do not offer the information to examine the above tasks. It is, though, assumed that the flight crew will demand the high quality ergonomically planned navigation and traffic information and in various circumstances may require to be aided by some level of automation and maybe through some decision support tools. Presently flight crews use the TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) instead of ATC (Air Traffic Control) and to help them attain a minimum level of traffic situational awareness. But in today’s operational environment, TCAS information will not be enough. A CDTI (Cockpit Display of Traffic Information) system will possibly be a better system to help the aircrew to maintain and develop a high level of traffic situational awareness by offering basic data about speed, position and provide information of future state of aircraft in the neighborhood. The important requirement will possibly b e to aid the crew in the detection, prevention and resolution of an important conflict. In this area, it is assumed that the aircrew will be in a controlling position. The revealing of imminent collisions will be automated and will be implemented in the background. The crew will be warned in situation of imminent conflicts along with numerous solution strategies, which are supposed to be filtered and sorted for the crew by using various criteria (e.g., time/fuel optimization, wind and weather criteria, passenger comfort, etc.) to elect for the best solution in the given situation. The aircrew will have the probability to modify different factors of the maneuver (e.g. waypoints, aircraft speed, altitude) according to their requirements and own judgment of the situation. (International, 2007) Improvements One of the major risks a pilot faced is the unawareness of existing problem. This situation indicated as a loss of situational awareness. Loss of situation awareness is like danger is everywhere and you are pleasingly unaware of it. Loss of situational awareness can be initiated by somewhat as simple as inattention. A pilot is unaware of the mid-air collision curse because he or she hasn’t been concentrating in maintaining a traffic watch. A pilot is not aware of refueling of the piston engine aircraft that either jet fuel has been loaded into fuel tanks or not. A pilot is careless during the pre-flight examination that a poor gas seal and heavy rains put hazardous quantity of water in the fuel tanks. A pilot must have situational awareness to tackle any of the above dangerous situations effectively and efficiently. A pilot initially creates situational awareness through applied crew management skills and through trainings. Situational awareness also includes establishing targ ets and goals for a particular flight. Once established, it can be maintained by examining of clues to its possible loss. False assumptions are also cause of flight crews’ problems. It can include great expectations, problematic fixations, ignoring bad news, and intense situation of pilots in case of stress. These problems must be reducing to improve environments of aircraft organization. Cockpit stress management plays an important role in airborne environment. In case of any emergency, pilot must be clam, think for alternatives, choose one and then act on it. A pilot must avoid fear and panicking as they are our greatest enemies during emergencies. Don’t wait to announce any emergency until it’s too late for you to handle the situation. A pilot must immediately ask ATC for help. Lots of ground resources can be available for help. If any error occurs because of a pilot, he must forget about that and concentrate on the job at hands. A focus is must, think of an alternative plan and work on it immediately. Use of checklists can prevent as much as 70% of all the accidents which occur because of pilot primary errors. Cockpit stress management procedure can also be accomplished by using checklists instead of relying on memory of pilots only. Hypoxia is a deceptive problem in aviation. It occurs when body cell receives very less oxygen because of altitudes. Its consequences creep up on pilots without their realizing it. A pilot must be aware of how to handle this situation. The way of pilot to perform their job, the manner they cooperate with other crew members, the manner in which they use all available resources and many other details related to human presentation, will have deep effect on the manner in which they fly the airplane. A pilot must undergo a proper professional training in the area of human factors to improve their performance in all the aspects. Crew co-ordinations must be efficient and the monitoring and assignments of duties of all assigned crewmember must perform their jobs effectively. Communications occur between crewmembers related to flying tasks must not be vague, indefinite or unclear. Summary Human factors and its engineering feature involve the usage of knowledge about human limitations and capabilities to design a technological system. Human factor engineering also relates to personnel selection, training, procedures and many others. Humans can also fail to function appropriately in various conditions. Human can face physical fatigue, affected by the cold, can break bones in accidents in workshops etc. Mentally humans can make mistakes, have restrained powers, and can make poor judgments due to lack of knowledge and skills. Furthermore, human performance is also influenced by emotional and social factors. Therefore proper training of aircraft maintenance technicians is required to full all the features of human factors. The aircraft maintenance technicians are the main part of the maintenance system. It is thus very necessary to have knowledge of mental processes function and different parts of body and also the understanding of performance limitations that can affect the work. An essential part of the operational efficiency is continues improvement in flight crew training and in designs and procedures. Study of commercial airplane and human performance interfaces leads to reduce accidents and at the end increases flight safety. The flight deck human factors are researched which include measurement of flight performance and risk, impact of advance technologies, assessing controller pilot information transfer, determining the consciences of stressors on human performance, recognizing human factors included in incidents and accidents, analyzing the effects of tasks design on pilot performance. Human resources perform aerospace research on organizational and individual issues related to human factors. Research areas included designing of cockpit management programs, effective use of trainings related to human factors, recognition of human factors linked with maintenance- related aviation incidents and accidents and with aircrew Bibliography GRAEBER, C. (2014). AERO 8. Retrieved from Boeing: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_08/human_story.html International, H. (2007, september). Human Factors in Autonomous Aircraft Operations. Retrieved from http://ifly.nlr.nl/documents/P2.1 iFly_EAAP08_nf.pdf Johnson, D. W. (2007, april). A Model to Explain Human Factors. Retrieved from Industry: http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/1482.pdf Kantowitz, B. H. (2011). Hand Book Aviation Human Factors. Retrieved from http://theblackswaninvestmentclub.com/flight_manuals/human factors.pdf Parry, D. L. (2014). HUMAN FACTORS AND PILOT DECISION-MAKING. Retrieved from http://www.langleyflyingschool.com/Pages/CPGS Pilot Decision Making.html#Human Factors and Pilot Error

Moisture Content Experiment

Date: 09-02-2013 Experiment 1(a) Laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of a soil sample by oven drying method Reference: ASTM D2216-98 Need and scope of the experiment: In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a few, natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.Apparatus: 1. Containers (Tin or Aluminum) with lids. 2. Balance, sensitive to 0. 01gm 3. Oven with accurate temperature control at 110 + 5oC (230 + 9oF) Discussion: 1. Moisture Content (w) It is defined as â€Å"the ratio of the mass of the ‘pore’ or ‘free’ water in a given mass of material to the mass of the solid material†. w=MwMs? 100 Mw = Mass of water in grams Ms = Mass of solid particles in grams (i. e. oven drie d weight of soil) 2. Representative quantity of Test SpecimenThe minimum mass of moist material selected to be representative of the total sample shall be in accordance with the following: Maximum particle size (100% passing)| Standard Sieve Size| Recommended minimum mass of moist test specimen for water content reported to  ±0. 1%| Recommended minimum mass of moist test specimen for water content reported to  ±1%| 2 mm or less| No. 10| 20 g| 20 g| 4. 75 mm| No. 4| 100 g| 20 g| 9. 5 mm| 3/8-in. | 500 g| 50 g| 19. 0 mm| ? -in. | 2. 5 kg| 250 g| 37. 5 mm| 1? -in. | 10 kg| 1 kg| 75. 0 mm| 3-in. | 50 kg| 5 kg|NOTE-1If it is suspected that gypsum is present in the soil, the soil sample should not be subjected to a temperature beyond 80oC. Otherwise gypsum would lose its water of crystallization, thereby affecting the results of moisture content. Oven drying at 80oC may, however, be continued for a longer time in order to ensure complete evaporation of free water present in the sample . NOTE-2To assist the oven drying of large test samples, it is advisable to use containers having large surface area and break up the material into smaller aggregations.NOTE-3Since some dry materials may absorb moisture from moist specimens; the dried specimens should be removed before placing new wet soil samples in the oven. Procedure: 1. Take sufficient number. of empty, clean containers and mark them (if they are not marked) with an identifying number or code. 2. Weigh the container and record the weight as M1 to the nearest 0. 01gm. 3. Take representative sample from different depths (0. 25, 0. 5, 0. 75m) from the field. 4. Quickly place the representative sample of the wet soil in the container. . Immediately weigh the container with the wet soil sample to the nearest 0. 01 gm. Record the weight as M2. In case it is not feasible to determine the weight immediately, cover the container with a lid. 6. Place the container with the soil sample in the drying oven at constant temper ature of 110+5oC for 24 hours (till constant weight is achieved). 7. After 24 hours remove the container from oven and weigh to the nearest 0. 01 gm. Record the weight as M3. Calculations: Mass of empty container = M1=4. 71(g)Mass of empty container + wet soil = M2= 43. 88(g) Mass of container + dry soil = M3=37. 41(g) Mass of water = Mw = M2 – M3 = 6. 47(g) Mass of soil solids = Ms = M3 – M1 = 33. 24(g) Moisture Content = w=MwMs? 100=M2-M3M3-M1? 100 Soil Moisture Content Determination: 1| Depth ( )| | 2| Soil Description| | 3| Container No. | 143| 4| Mass of empty container (M1), g| 4. 71| 5| Mass of Container + Wet Soil (M2), g| 43. 88| 6| Mass of Container + dry Soil (M3), g| 37. 41| 7| Moisture Content w = (M2 – M3)/(M3 – M1) %| 19. 46 %| Comments: ) Oven drying is a time taking process and not much accurate as speedy moisture meter. 2) It needs caring for long time in order to get the good results. 3) It needs attentions in case if some other materia l like Gypsum is present in the soil. In such cases temp. should have to be controlled otherwise the material may react and loose its water of crystallization which effects the results. 4) Above value of moisture content lies in Normal moisture content range. 5) Date: 09-02-2013 Experiment 1(b) To determine moisture content of a soil sample by speedy moisture meter.Apparatus: 1. Speedy moisture meter (also called calcium carbide pressure moisture tester) 2. Built-in scale for weighing 3. Two 1. 25 inches (3. 175 cm) steel balls 4. Cleaning brush and cloth 5. Scoop for measuring calcium carbide reagent 6. Calcium carbide reagent Introduction: The calcium carbide gas moisture tester provides a quick and simple means of determining moisture content of soil. It is particularly useful for field determinations of moisture content in conjunction with field compaction testing.The basic premise of the calcium carbide gas moisture tester is that the free moisture in the soil reacts with calci um carbide reagent to form a gas called acetylene gas. CaC2+H2O>CaO+C2H2 The acetylene gas pressure developed within the tester is displayed on the pressure dial gauge, which is calibrated to read directly moisture content (in %) by wet mass of soil. Since moisture content by definition is expressed as a percentage of dry mass of soil, the readings obtained by speedy moisture meter are corrected using the following expression: w=wsp1-wsp? 00 Where w = moisture content in %. wsp= moisture content as obtained by speedy moisture meter expressed as decimal fraction Procedure: 1. Weigh a 26 gram soil sample on the tarred scale and place it in the cap of the tester. 2. Place three scoops (approximately 24 gm) of calcium carbide and two 1. 25 in (3. 175cm) steel balls in the larger chamber of the moisture tester. 3. With the pressure vessel in an approximately horizontal position, insert cap in the pressure vessel and seal it by tightening the clamp.Take care that no carbide comes in conta ct with the soil until a complete seal is achieved. 4. Raise the moisture tester to a vertical position so that the soil in the cap will fall into the pressure vessel. 5. Shake the instrument vigorously so that all soil lumps are broken to permit the calcium carbide to react with all available free moisture. The instrument should be shaken with a rotating motion so that the steel balls will not damage the instrument or cause soil particles to become embedded in the orifice leading to pressure diaphragm. 6.When the needle stops moving, read the dial while holding the instrument in a horizontal position at eye level. 7. Record the dial reading. 8. With the cap of the instrument pointed away from the operator, slowly release the gas pressure. Empty the pressure vessel and examine the material for lumps. If the sample is not completely pulverized, the test should be repeated using a new sample. 9. The dial reading is the percent of moisture by wet mass and must be converted to dry mass. Note: If the moisture content of the sample exceeds the limit of the pressure gauge 20 percent moisture), use half of the soil mass and double the dial reading. Other methods of determining moisture content quickly: Other methods of measuring moisture content quickly include measurements by stove method and by micro wave oven methods. ASTM D4959-07 is used for measuring by stove method and ASTM D4643-08 is used to measure moisture my micro wave method. Results and Comments: Zero Error of Dial Gauge = 0. 8 Dial Gauge Reading = 17. 6 Corrected Dial Gauge Reading = 16. 8 Wsp = 0. 68 W (Moisture Content) = 20. 19 % * Speedy Moisture meter give better and faster result than the ordinary oven drying. * In this method the water present in soil reacts with calcium carbide and results in acetylene gas which in turn gives the value of moisture content. * Speedy moisture meter method is an efficient method as it doesn’t involve too much time for its performance. It is used when tests a re performed in the field. * Moisture content effects the soil resistivity, soil compaction and soil shear strength.

Hope vs Hope

Jovon Abriam American Literature Mr. Taube March 6, 2013 Hope Vs. Hope It’s a plane! It’s a bird! Yes, it actually is a bird. The poem â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers, is a 19th century poem written by Emily Dickinson and the movie The Shawshank Redemption, written and directed by Frank Durabont, both use a bird as a major symbol to hope. The Shawshank Redemption use the characters Jack, Andy and Red to make connections to hope, while â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers really has no characters that make connections to hope. Hope† is the thing with feathers is a poem about how hope never dies and will get you through rough times. The Shawshank Redemption is a movie based in the 1940’s how hope can either be corrupt or the best thing in life. The Shawshank Redemption and â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers are similar because of the symbolism and the central theme in both works, but what makes them different is the connectio ns the characters has to hope and the different type of media used.When juxtaposing the two works, you will find that there are a few similarities between the two. In, â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers (which is the first line in the poem) and The Shawshank Redemption, they both use birds as the symbol of hope. Saying that â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers is basically referring to a bird and in The Shawshank Redemption, the bird symbolizes hope because when Jake gives up his bird, he loses hope and ends up killing himself. Hope does not only play as the symbol in both works, but also as the central theme in the two.In the poem, Emily Dickinson is saying that if you have hope, it can get you through hard times and she uses a gale and a storm to symbolize the hard times. In The Shawshank Redemption, having hope will lead to you accomplishing your greatest desires. On the other hand, there are a few differences between The Shawshank Redemption and â€Å"Hopeâ €  is the thing with feathers. One of the differences between the two is that obviously one is a movie and the other is a poem.Another thing different between the two is the way the characters have a connection to hope. In â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers, there is no character that really makes a connection to hope, unlike The Shawshank Redemption which uses Andy, Red and Jack to make connections to hope. While, â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers says that the bird is the one that produces music, the bird in The Shawshank Redemption does not make music, instead it is Andy that plays the music on the prison speakers.The Shawshank Redemption and â€Å"Hope† is the thing with feathers are both so similar, but so different at the same time. These two works share many things in common like using the bird as the symbol of hope, as well as hope being the central theme. However, they are different because the type of media and the characters’ connec tion that the have to hope. Even though a 19th century poem and a 20th century movie may seem like they may have many differences, they actually can share a few things in common.

Internal Conflict in Hermann Hesse’s Siddhartha - 967 Words

The novel Siddhartha by Hermann Hesse is a timeless story about one man’s journey of finding peace in his way of life and thoughts. Siddharta is a young Brahmin’s son, who is dissatisfied with his worship and in turn sets out to find the lifestyle that is right for him. Siddhartha is faced with many external, physical conflicts, yet that is not the most prominent type of conflict in the story. Hesse builds excitement and suspense through Siddhartha’s internal journey to create an emotional response usually associated with external conflict. The start to Siddhartha’s suspenseful journey was when he was a fairly young boy.That was when he had one of his most important awakenings, realizing that his religion wasn’t enough to truly feed†¦show more content†¦Before he found the secret that he was searching for, he had to overcome internal struggles, as he became frustrated that he had spent so much of his life looking for enlightenment and he h ad not yet found it. â€Å"The wound still smarted; he still rebelled against his fate. There was still no serenity and conquest of his suffering† (132). This quote shows what his thought process was like before Vasudeva gave him his final advice. He became almost doubtful, and certainly frustrated. This built up the reader’s feelings of suspense- would Siddhartha ever truly find enlightenment? Although Siddhartha’s internal thoughts reflected doubtfulness, he did eventually hear the words, spoken by Vasudeva, that he was searching for which led him to his enlightenment- From that hour Siddhartha ceased to fight against his destiny. There shone in his face the serenity of knowledge, of one who is no longer confronted with conflict of desires, who has found salvation, who is in harmony with the stream of events, with the stream of life, full of sympathy and compassion, surrendering himself to the stream, belonging to the unity of all things. (136) Siddhartha’s enlightenment was initially a composite of all the events that had happened throughout his lifetime. In the quote, â€Å"serenity of knowledge† may be referring to the knowledge gained by all the psychological conflicts Siddhartha experienced. All of the ups and downs, temptations and sacrifices added up, resulting in the excitingShow MoreRelated Siddhartha Essay: Use of Form, Symbolism, and Conflict1240 Words   |  5 PagesUse of Form, Symbolism, and Conflict in Siddhartha  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hermann Hesse uses the literary devices of form, symbolism, and conflict to develop his novel, Siddhartha.    Hermann Hesses novel, Siddhartha, is a novel of classical symmetry, a perfection achieved (Hermann Hesse 25).   It tells the story of a young man who sets out to find his true self.   Throughout his journey, Siddhartha converts to various religions, searching for the one religion that will help him discover his identityRead MoreFear Is The Common, But Misunderstood And Even Complex Emotion Of Fear2050 Words   |  9 Pagesstruggles. Fear helps drive characters to struggle against difficult circumstances in books like Mrs. Dalloway, Siddhartha and Their Eyes were Watching God. However, even though the main characters in these novels all face struggle, each faces a different component of it. In Mrs. Dalloway, Clarissa faces two struggles: one against herself and one against others. The central conflict Clarrissa faces is which herself. She goes through the whole book planning for a party that will please people